The Great Apostasy

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The Great Apostasy

Summary: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints claims that it is the restored Church of Jesus Christ. Fundamental to that belief is that the Church was lost for a time. Without such a loss, there could have been no Restoration. Critics, and especially those who are of Protestant, Orthodox, or Catholic Christian background, have argued that the Latter-day Saint belief in the Great Apostasy is erroneous on many grounds. Some have argued that Christ never established an official institution during His mortal life. Others have argued that He did found a church, but that the church was never lost.

Regardless of the criticism, it is a valuable exercise for Latter-day Saints to consider the historical, scriptural, and theological grounding for their belief in the Great Apostasy. While some aspects of this belief lie beyond the ken of academics, Latter-day Saint belief is not contradicted by existing historical or scriptural evidence.

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Defining the Apostasy

Defining what the Apostasy actually was is a matter of great importance. Without this definition, we cannot assuage the concerns of those studying this topic. It is important to define the Apostasy using scripture.

The word apostasy comes from the Greek word ἀποστασία (ah-poh-stah-SEE-uh). The prefix ἀπο means "away", and στασίs means "standing." Thus, etymologically, we get "standing away" or "standing apart" as the meaning of the word. "The word means ‘rebellion,’ ‘mutiny,’ ‘revolt,’ or ‘revolution,’ and it is used in ancient contexts with reference to uprisings against established authority."

In 2 Thessalonians, the apostle Paul said, "Let no man deceive you by any means: for [the Second Coming of Jesus Christ] shall not come, except there come a falling away ["ἀποστασία"] first, and that man of sin be revealed, the son of perdition" (2 Thessalonians 2:3).

Thus, in contrast to some who believe that external persecution was a primary cause of the Great Apostasy, the New Testament and other passages of scripture actually place internal rebellion as its primary cause. As we shall see, however, external persecution still played a role.

Mass internal rebellion is the primary cause and central, defining feature of the Great Apostasy, but rebellion against what? Ultimately, it was a rebellion against key, essential doctrines taught by Christ and His Apostles. When we talk about someone who is an "apostate" or "apostatizes" from the Church today, we are usually referring to someone who is openly rebelling against the Church and its authority. This is the best way to make sense of the Great Apostasy.

Some have conceptualized the loss of priesthood authority, the changing of ordinances, and the corruption of scripture as part of the definition of the Great Apostasy. However, these are merely symptoms of the internal rebellion against key, essential doctrines of the Gospel of Jesus Christ as taught by His Apostles. The rebellion against these doctrines led to the creation of many different Christian groups, each of which did not fully align with New Testament teachings on how Christ's Church should be run and what its members should believe. The creators of these sects thus become the perpetrators of the Great Apostasy, and other Christians who belonged to these churches became the unfortunate and unwitting inheritors or victims of it.

The Establishment of Christ's Church

If Christ's official, institutional Church was lost, then it must have been established. However, many today doubt that Christ ever established such a church. As we shall see, "Christ had followers, leaders, and rules. That certainly constitutes an organization." The word that Greek uses to describe such a church is "ἐκκλησία" (eh-clay-SEE-uh).

In the Gospel of Matthew, after Christ praises Peter for receiving his testimony of Christ from heaven, Christ says, "And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church [μου τὴν ἐκκλησίαν]; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it" (Matthew 16:18, emphasis added). This is one of the most explicit pieces of evidence in the New Testament that Christ meant to establish a church. In the next verse, Christ says, "And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven" (Matthew 16:19). What does the language of "binding" and "loosing" refer to? Protestant scholars assure us that this refers to the power of the Apostles to permit and ban various forms of behavior among the covenant people. Matthew 18:18 confirms that all of the Twelve had this authority. This was the authority to establish doctrine for the Church (Acts 2:42). This authority is evident from the fact that one of the criteria for including a book in the New Testament canon was apostolicity—that is, the characteristic of having been written by an apostle. The Apostles were also given power ("δύναμις") and authority ("ἐξουσία") to cast out all devils (Matthew 10:1) and to cure diseases (Luke 9:1).

However, do the lone mentions of an "ἐκκλησία" in Matthew 16 and 18 establish that Christ meant to establish a church? Lothar Coenen expresses doubt in The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology that the uses of "ἐκκλησία" in the passages from Matthew 16 and 18 can be used to support the notion that Christ established an official, institutional church. They are indeed the only times in all the Gospels that "ἐκκλησία" is used. "In all probability," Coenen writes, "Jesus himself called together the Twelve, but did not found the 'ekklesia' as such in his own lifetime, not even through the institution of the Lord's Supper." However, "This by itself would not settle the question whether he intended the church to come into being." This should not threaten Latter-day Saint belief. If Jesus at the very least came, taught His people, won them as followers, performed His Atonement, and gave His Apostles both authority to baptize and a commission to baptize His followers after His Ascension, the essential Latter-day Saint belief that Christ established a church is preserved.

The Apostasy Predicted

Latter-day Saints have appealed to a variety of scriptures to support their belief in the Great Apostasy. Some of these scriptures are better to use than others. Some do not give good evidence to support belief in the Great Apostasy.

One scripture frequently used is Amos 8:11. It says, "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord God, that I will send a famine in the land, not a famine of bread, nor a thirst for water, but of hearing the words of the Lord."

The most extensive evidence of an apostasy is found in the New Testament.

New Testament Prophecies of the Demise of Christ’s Church

• Matthew 13:24–30
• Matthew 24:5, 24
• Acts 20:29-30
• Romans 11:19–21
• 2 Thessalonians 2:3–4
• 1 Timothy 4:1–3
• 2 Timothy 3:1–9, 12; 4:3–4
• 2 Peter 2:1–3
• Revelation 13:7

Evidences of First-Century Apostasy from the New Testament

• John 6:66
• Romans 1:8–32
• Romans 2:17–24
• Romans 16:17–18
• 1 Corinthians 1:11–12; 3:4
• 1 Corinthians 4:18
• 1 Corinthians 5:1, 6
• 1 Corinthians 10:14
• 1 Corinthians 11:18–11, 29–30, 34
• 1 Corinthians 14:1–37
• 2 Corinthians 3:1; 72
• 2 Corinthians 6:14–17
• 2 Corinthians 11:3–4, 12–15
• Galatians 1:6–9; 3:1
• Galatians 4:8–11; 5:7, 15–22
• Ephesians 4:1–5:21
• Colossians 2:8–9, 18
• 2 Thessalonians 2:7–9
• 2 Thessalonians 3:6
• 1 Timothy 1:3–4, 6–7, 19–20
• 1 Timothy 5:15
• 1 Timothy 6:1–10
• 1 Timothy 6:20–21
• 2 Timothy 1:8–18; 2:16–18; 4:14–17
• Titus 1:10–14
• Titus 2:1–15
• Titus 3:9–11
• James 1–2
• James 4:1–8
• 2 Peter 2:1–22; 3:16–18
• 1 John 2:9–27; 4:1
• 3 John 1:9–10
• Jude 1:3–19
• Revelations 2–3

Teeing the Ball Up: The Loss of Apostolic Authority

Doctrine and Covenants 86 presents the Apostles as the original sowers of the gospel in the Savior's Parable of the Wheat and the Tares. According to the revelation, they planted the "good seed," but after they "fell asleep" (that is, after their deaths), the adversary sowed tares among the wheat, symbolizing the introduction of corruption and false teachings into the Church (Doctrine & Covenants 86:1–3). Unlike some earlier Latter-day Saint interpretations that suggested the wheat disappeared entirely, this revelation teaches that the wheat continued to exist alongside the tares until the last days, when the Lord would begin the work of gathering and separating them. Thus, Doctrine and Covenants 86 portrays the Apostles as faithfully establishing Christ's Church and attributes the subsequent Apostasy to the enemy's efforts after their ministry ended, while emphasizing that God preserved faithful believers ("the wheat") until the Restoration and the final gathering.

The Fate of the Apostles

The best historical scholarship available places the death of the last Apostle as early 100 AD and as late as 107 AD.

The Fate of the Apostles

Apostle	Location	Killed By	Reason	Manner	Source	Date	Historical Likelihood
Peter	Rome, Italy	Roman authorities under Emperor Nero	Preaching Christ during the Roman persecution of Christians after the Great Fire of Rome in (c. AD 64–67).	Crucified	Tradition	64–68 AD	Moderate-High
Andrew	Patras, Greece	Roman governor of Achaia	Refused to stop preaching Christianity.	Crucified	Tradition	60 AD	Low-Moderate
James G	Jerusalem	Herod Agrippa	To please certain Jewish leaders who opposed the Christian movement (Acts 12:1–2).	Beheaded	Acts 12	44 AD	High
John	Ephesus	None	Exiled to Patmos under Roman authority for preaching the Gospel (Revelation 1:9).	Natural	Tradition	100 AD	Moderate
Philip	Hierapolis	Local authorities in Phrygia	Converted prominent individuals and challenged paganism.	Crucified	Apocrypha	80 AD	Low
Bartholomew	Armenia	Armenian or local pagan rulers	Converted members of the royal family to Christianity.	Flayed	Tradition	69–71 AD	Low
Thomas	Chennai, India	Local rulers in India	Converted many people, including members of the nobility.	Speared	Tradition	72 AD	Moderate
Matthew	Ethiopia	Local rulers	Refused to stop teaching and converting people.	Natural or Stabbed	Legend	68 AD	Low
James L	Jerusalem	Jewish religious leaders	Preached that Jesus was the Messiah	Stoned	Josephus	62 AD	Low
Jude	Persia/Beirut	Local authorities in Persia	Missionary activities and conversions	Beaten/Axed	Apocrypha	65 AD	Low
Simon	Persia	Persian or Roman authorities	Preaching Christianity	Sawn	Tradition	65–107 AD	Low
Judas	Jerusalem	Himself	After betraying Jesus, he died in remorse (Matthew 27:3–5; Acts 1:18–19 describes the aftermath differently).	Suicide	Math. 27 / Acts 1	AD 30–33	High
Matthias	Jerusalem or Colchis	Jewish religious authorities	For preaching Christ as the Messiah	Stoned or Crucified	Tradition	80 AD	Moderate

The Key Doctrines

As mentioned before, the Apostasy was the result of key doctrines being rebelled against. Below, we explore some of the possibilities.

An Embodied God

By the 2nd century, Christians were teaching that God created the universe out of nothing. As observed by James Hubler,

Creatio ex nihilo appeared suddenly in the latter half of the second century c.e. Not only did creatio ex nihilo lack precedent, it stood in firm opposition to all the philosophical schools of the Greco-Roman world. As we have seen, the doctrine was not forced upon the Christian community by their revealed tradition, either in Biblical texts or the Early Jewish interpretation of them. As we will also see it was not a position attested in the New Testament doctrine or even sub-apostolic writings. It was a position taken by the apologists of the late second century, Tatian and Theophilus, and developed by various ecclesiastical writers thereafter, by Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Origen. Creatio ex nihilo represents an innovation in the interpretive traditions of revelation and cannot be explained merely as a continuation of tradition.

Tatian and Theophilus died by AD 185. Irenaeus (191 AD), Origen (253 AD), and Tertullian (220 AD) all died by the third century AD. This doctrine they taught contravened the Bible. John 17:3 teaches, “And this is life eternal, that they might know thee the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom thou hast sent.” By not knowing the true God, the Christians certainly fell into apostasy.

Other "Plain and Precious" Truths Lost

• Three Degrees of Glory
• Baptism for the dead
• Faith and works

The Change of Covenants

Nephi mentions "covenants" that were taken out of the Bible. What could these covenants refer to?

BYU professors Nicolas J. Frederick and Joseph M. Spencer argue that the Book of Mormon presents the Great Apostasy primarily as the rise of replacement theology—the belief that the Christian Church permanently replaced Israel as God's covenant people. They contend that the Book of Mormon emphasizes a remnant theology, teaching that God's covenants with Israel remain in force and that Gentiles are invited to be grafted into those covenants rather than supplant Israel. They build this case primarily from 1 Nephi 13, arguing that the "plain and precious things" removed from the Bible largely concerned God's enduring covenant with Israel and its future gathering. They reinforce this interpretation with 2 Nephi 25–30, Jacob 5, 3 Nephi 16, 20, and 21, and Mormon 5, all of which emphasize Israel's eventual restoration and the centrality of the gathering of Israel in the last days. They also appeal to Romans 9–11, particularly Paul's olive tree analogy, along with the Abrahamic covenant in Genesis 12 and Isaiah's prophecies of Israel's restoration, to argue that both the Bible and the Book of Mormon teach that Gentile Christians become part of Israel's covenant family rather than replacing it. In their view, the Restoration restores this covenant-centered understanding of God's work, making the gathering of Israel—not merely the reestablishment of ecclesiastical authority—the defining answer to the Great Apostasy.

Cherubim and a Flaming Sword: The Corruption of Scripture Guarding the Way Back from the Apostasy

In 1 Nephi 13, Nephi sees that the Bible originally went forth from the Jews in purity, containing the "fulness of the gospel" and many "plain and precious" truths. However, after it passed through the hands of a "great and abominable church," many of these plain and precious parts were removed before the Bible reached the Gentiles. As a result, many people stumbled spiritually, became confused about essential doctrines, and fell under the influence of false traditions. Nevertheless, Nephi also sees that God would not abandon humanity: He would bring forth additional scripture—most notably the Book of Mormon—to restore many of the lost truths, establish the truth of the Bible as far as it had been preserved, and help gather Israel and bring people to a knowledge of Jesus Christ and His gospel.

Nephi's vision varies in claiming that many plain and precious things are taken out of the Bible (1 Nephi 13:29) or taken out of the gospel (1 Nephi 13:26). Nephi also mentions "covenants" that have been taken away (1 Nephi 13:26). These plain and precious parts were taken away by "the great and abominable church" so "that they might pervert the right ways of the Lord, that they might blind the eyes and harden the hearts of the children of men (vv. 26–27). Here, we have a clear distinction between the perpetrators and their unfortunate victims whom they have blinded and whose hearts they have hardened against the true church.

The great and abominable church sought to "pervert the right ways of the Lord" (v. 27). The angel tells Nephi, "Behold the gold, and the silver, and the silks, and the scarlets, and the fine-twined linen, and the precious clothing, and the harlots, are the desires of this great and abominable church" (1 Nephi 13:8).

The most thorough treatment of this topic was done by Latter-day Saint scholar and Egyptologist John Gee in a book chapter he authored in 2005.

Why 1820?

One of the most natural questions a person can ask about the Restoration is why it took so long. If the priesthood authority and many "plain and precious" truths were lost following the deaths of the Apostles, why would God wait nearly eighteen centuries before restoring them? Why not restore the gospel in the fourth century, the eighth century, or during the Protestant Reformation? Latter-day Saint doctrine does not provide a complete answer to those questions. The Lord has never revealed every reason for His timing. Nevertheless, scripture, history, and the teachings of modern prophets together suggest a compelling cumulative explanation. While they may not demonstrate that the Restoration had to occur in 1820, they help us understand why that moment in history was uniquely fitting.

The Restoration was not simply a correction of a few theological errors. It inaugurated what Latter-day Saints call the "dispensation of the fulness of times" (Ephesians 1:10; Doctrine and Covenants 128:18), the final dispensation before the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. God was not merely restoring doctrines. He was restoring priesthood authority, bringing forth new scripture, revealing temple ordinances, gathering Israel on both sides of the veil, and establishing a Church intended to endure until Christ's return. Such a work required more than a willing prophet. It required a world that had been prepared to receive, preserve, and spread the Restoration. Throughout scripture, God often accomplishes His purposes by patiently preparing both people and circumstances over generations rather than by overriding history altogether. The Restoration appears to follow that same pattern.

History itself points toward the nineteenth century as an unusually favorable moment. For much of Christian history, governments treated religious dissent as both a theological and civil offense. New religious movements were often suppressed before they could take root. By Joseph Smith's day, however, the United States offered something unprecedented: constitutional protections for religious liberty, a population with high literacy rates, inexpensive printing, and a culture that encouraged religious inquiry. The Book of Mormon could be printed and distributed on a scale that would have been impossible centuries earlier. Missionaries could travel with increasing ease, and advances in communication and transportation would soon allow the restored gospel to spread throughout the world. The political, technological, and social conditions necessary for a permanent restoration had begun to converge.

Those developments did not emerge in isolation. From a Latter-day Saint perspective, centuries of Christian reform also helped prepare the way. Men and women such as John Wycliffe, William Tyndale, Martin Luther, John Calvin, and John Wesley challenged religious corruption, translated the scriptures into the language of ordinary people, emphasized personal engagement with the Bible, and encouraged believers to seek a purer form of Christianity. Although Latter-day Saints believe these reformers did not restore priesthood authority or the fulness of the gospel, they nevertheless helped create a world increasingly receptive to the idea that God might yet do more. In that sense, the Reformation was not the Restoration itself, but an important step toward it.

The Book of Mormon adds another dimension to this picture. In 1 Nephi 13, Nephi foresaw that many "plain and precious" truths would be removed from the gospel as it passed through history. Whether through deliberate corruption, sincere misunderstanding, or simply the accumulation of centuries of tradition, religious institutions naturally develop a powerful inertia. Once a particular way of reading scripture becomes deeply established, even faithful believers often find it difficult to imagine that foundational assumptions could be mistaken. The Restoration therefore required more than correcting isolated doctrines. It required someone willing to ask whether prevailing religious narratives themselves were incomplete. Joseph Smith's First Vision began with precisely that kind of question. Rather than asking which denomination was the best expression of Christianity, he sought to know which church God Himself recognized. His willingness to seek revelation rather than rely solely upon inherited tradition distinguished him from many of his contemporaries.

Latter-day Saints also believe that Joseph Smith was prepared for this work long before his birth. Scripture teaches that certain individuals were foreordained in the premortal life for sacred missions (Abraham 3:22–23), and Lehi identified Joseph Smith as the "choice seer" prophesied centuries earlier by Joseph of Egypt (2 Nephi 3). Although the reasons for Joseph's foreordination have not been fully revealed, it is reasonable within Latter-day Saint theology to conclude that he had demonstrated exceptional faithfulness before mortality and had been divinely prepared for this calling. His mortal life likewise displayed qualities the Restoration demanded: humility before God, openness to continuing revelation, remarkable resilience under persecution, and an extraordinary capacity to receive, organize, and teach new revelation. If God had spent centuries preparing the world for the Restoration, it is fitting that He would also prepare the prophet through whom that Restoration would come.

Taken together, these considerations form a persuasive cumulative case. God prepared nations through political and legal developments that protected religious liberty. He prepared societies through centuries of reform that rekindled a desire for scriptural truth. He prepared the world through advances in literacy, printing, communication, and transportation that would enable the restored gospel to endure and spread. He prepared a prophet who was foreordained, spiritually receptive, and willing to ask questions that others would not. Each consideration, standing alone, explains only part of the picture. Together, however, they paint a coherent portrait of divine providence unfolding over many centuries.

Even so, it is important not to claim more than the evidence allows. This cumulative case does not prove that 1820 was the only possible time for the Restoration or that Joseph Smith was the only person whom God could have called. Latter-day Saint scripture does not reveal every reason for God's choices, and finite beings should be cautious about claiming insight into every aspect of divine providence. The purpose of these arguments is not to demonstrate necessity but to show fittingness. They explain why the timing of the Restoration makes sense within the broader sweep of sacred history.

Ultimately, Christians already accept this kind of reasoning in many other contexts. Scripture says that Christ came "in the fulness of time" (Galatians 4:4), yet it does not explain why the Incarnation occurred in the first century rather than earlier or later. God waited centuries before delivering Israel from Egypt, generations before sending the Flood, and days before raising Lazarus. In each case, believers can identify reasons that illuminate God's timing without claiming to exhaust His purposes. The Restoration invites the same posture. Latter-day Saints can reasonably conclude that God inaugurated the Restoration when the world had been sufficiently prepared and through the prophet He had long prepared for that work. Beyond that, faith does not require complete knowledge of every divine reason. It requires confidence that the God who patiently guided history toward the Restoration knew precisely when its fulness of times had arrived.

How Would We Know Whether the Church is in Apostasy Today?

Notes (click to expand)

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